Visuals and Vocabulary
Not knowing the meaning of a word while reading is a common occurrence in school particularly when the students are at the stage when they are "reading-to-learn" as opposed to "learning-to-read." As mentioned in the previous blog post, it is within this “reading to learn” stage that Tier 2 vocabulary becomes prominent. Tier 2 vocabulary’s significance lies in its foundational framework for reading comprehension. Research shows that looking up the word in a dictionary alone is not enough for the student to grasp an in depth understanding of the word (Wise, Sevcik, Morris, Lovett, & Wolf, 2007). An in depth understanding would give the students the tools to manipulate and use the word in a novel way such as in conversation or in writing.
Marzano (2009) provided a list of methods that targeted methods to provide a deeper understanding of novel vocabulary words to increase both receptive and expressive language skills. One of the most important methods involved having “students construct a picture, pictograph or symbolic representation of the word.” InferCabulary Pro not only emphasizes this particular aspect of vocabulary but takes it to another level by providing contexts associated with the pictures through captions and has interactive games that reinforce a word’s meaning.
As a speech-language pathologist who often incorporates vocabulary goals into her sessions, visuals are an important component of vocabulary learning particularly for students with language disorders. Visuals take away the language component that would normally be associated with a word and its definition. InferCabulary Pro provides a visually exciting means of accessing and inferring meaning of words commonly found in the curriculum.
Marzano, R. J. (2009). The art and science of teaching: Six steps to better vocabulary instruction. Educational leadership, 67(1), 83-84.
Wise, J. C., Sevcik, R. A., Morris, R. D., Lovett, M. W., & Wolf, M. (2007). The relationship among receptive and expressive vocabulary, listening comprehension, pre-reading skills, word identification skills, and reading comprehension by children with reading disabilities. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 50(4), 1093-1109.
"Twerking" Has Been Around for a While
Vocabulary instruction tends to be humdrum and predictable not only for students, but for teachers, as well. Recently, the Oxford Dictionary added 500 new words to it's pages. If I find this fact interesting maybe my students will, too. Think about inspiring your students to have some fun with vocabulary by learning new words recently added and researching why. For instance, Miley Cyrus didn't invent the term "twerking." It dates back to the 19th century and was originally spelled "twirking." In 1820 it was considered a combination of the words "twitch" and "jerk." The Oxford Dictionary updated the spelling recently to reflect the times.
Karen Bromley in "Nine Things Every Teacher Should Know About Words and Vocabulary Instruction," suggests that not only should students find new words added to the dictionary, but take it a step further by having them create a list of words they think should be added. Relating vocabulary to daily life, helps students develop a deeper relationship with word meaning.
http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/06/25/417530639/oxford-english-dictionary-adds-new-words-offers-clarity-on-old-ones
Bromley, Karen. "Nine things every teacher should know about words and vocabulary instruction." Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 50.7 (2007): 528-537.
Putting Definitions in Context
Janet Allen in her book, Words, Words, Words (2006) asks, "Why Not Context?" She says without guidance students generally resort to two methods for learning new words: looking it up and sounding it out in a sentence (context). A single sentence usually does not have enough information for students to figure out what a word means in context, so they need new strategies.
Students learn more words on their own by reading, so they should have instruction in how to figure words out on their own. Arm them with strategies for figuring out the words in context. Using strategies to learn vocabulary is known as concept-based vocabulary and researches say that the benefits last well beyond the usual vocabulary instruction.
Strategies may include:
- using the words in sentences to "paint a picture"
- identifying synonyms and antonyms
- talk about the roots, prefixes and suffixes
- look for context clues before and after the sentence with the vocabulary word
Finally, show students how you use strategies to figure out words you don't know well. Talk through the process with them, so they can see a more efficient way to go about the process.
Visual Memory and Vocabulary
The Dual Coding Theory, originally proposed by Paivio on 1971, has inspired debate and decades of research. This theory, described as “one of the most influential theories of cognition this
[20th] century” (Marks, 1997) attempts to explain why mental imagery is so powerful for recall of verbal information.
Although far more complex than the scope of this blog post, Dual Coding Theory can be simply explained as two separate systems in the brain that work in tandem to lay down memory traces, and which increase the chance that a memory will be created and retrieved. One system, the verbal memory system, lays down tracks to recall verbal information. When the language is converted to mental imagery (either intentionally and with effort, or spontaneously), the visual memory system is also then engaged. Thus, rather than having only a single verbal memory trace laid down for the word, the visual imagery laid down an additional pathway, increasing the likelihood of recall of specific meaning. The
chance that the memory for this word will be retained and retrieved are significantly greater when it is stored in two distinct brain locations rather than in
just one location.
For example, if the word "prudent" is learned using a definition, but it is paired, either incidentally or intentionally with a visual image of, say, a person making a wise choice, Dual Coding Theory explains why the person is more likely to remember and retrieve the concept.
Although other theories exist, such as Common Coding Theory, The Dual Coding theory has, for decades, been subjected to vigorous criticism and to many
attempts by researchers to refute Paivio's theory without success. According to Nigel J.T. Thomas ;,
"Paivio has continued to
develop, elaborate, and defend it, periodically reviewing the relevant
experimental literature.* http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mental-imagery/theories-memory.html
We know that pairing the language of vocabulary with imagery helps students lay down more effective mental maps for theses words. The likelihood of recall and retrieval is also increased.
*(Paivio, 1971, 1977, 1983a, 1986, 1991a, 1995, 2007; Paivio & Begg, 1981; Sadoski & Paivio, 2001 – for less partisan reviews see Morris & Hampson, 1983; Thomas, 1987; Richardson, 1980, 1999)
Pruning Vocabulary
"One gradually learns the word’s denotations and connotations and its modes of use little by little over many, many language experiences."
We know that an advanced 12th-grade student who knows 80,000 words knows each of these words with different levels of precision. She learned these words, not by learning 15 words a day, but by collecting bits of information about, and integrating together these bits in order to "own" the words.
On average, students require 10-12 exposures to a word in a variety of contexts in order to have this ownership over a "rare word" (i.e., Tier Two vocabulary.)
For example, if a student reads, "The prudent mom brought her coupons to the store," she might infer that prudent means thoughtful, or good at planning ahead. A month later, she might read, "Tavon prudently studied for his test." When this word is accessed, the previous assumption of what prudent means is pruned. Now she might understand prudent to mean planning ahead to save money and to get a good grade. Four months later, she might hear her health teacher say, "It is important to make prudent decisions about the food you eat so you do not become obese."
With repeated exposures, the student develops a deep, broad understanding of the word and the variety of contexts in which it can be used.
We've done this with our InferCabulary app, giving students multiple exposures through photographs to help them through this discovery process.
Strategies Proven to Help Students Learn Vocabulary
Dr. Hairrell et al. performed a systematic review of
24 current vocabulary research studies. Their review concurred that several
instructional approaches and strategies have been proven to increase students’
vocabulary knowledge. They also
determined that the National Reading Panel was correct in identifying the need
for additional research.
Strategies, it has a strong positive affect on students’ understanding of
vocabulary. These semantic strategies included
discussions, student-friendly definitions, word characteristics, examples and non-examples,
visuals, and graphic organizers. Several studies (Apthorp, 2006; Fore III, Boon,
& Lowrie, 2007; Nash & Snowling, 2006) reported positive gains when
semantic strategies were part of a multicomponent vocabulary program.
Additionally, studies showed semantic instruction to be effective with students
with limited vocabulary knowledge (Apthorp, 2006) and resulted in more
“durable” knowledge (Nash & Snowling, 2006, p. 349).
Weknow that children benefit, not only when we talk about words or define them,
but when we provide them with visuals, and show them how to link new words with
known words. When they are provided multiple contexts, and learn about the
precision of meanings through examples and non-examples, they are more
successful at “owning” the new words. For example, after a student learns the
concept of “audacious”, we might ask, “Is
this an example or non-example of audacious, ‘The
audacious boys rode their skateboards downstairs and handrails.’” “How about this one? ‘The audacious parents
served their children breakfast.’?” As students fine-tune their understanding of words, these examples/non-examples can become more subtle.
(2011) The
50:4, 253-271, DOI:
Vocabulary Meaning Has a Dimmer Switch
How do we foster meaningful vocabulary skills in students? Deeper and broader understanding of vocabulary meaning doesn't happen all at once, according to Charlene Cobb and Camille Blachowicz in "Look Up the List" Vocabulary Instruction. Look at it like a dimmer switch where the understanding of a word's meaning will increase over time. As they learn, the light becomes brighter. They say, first, you need to "flood students with words."
Set your classroom up with word charts, puzzle books, games, dictionaries, alphabet books, etc., so that their learning environment is inundated with word meaning. Next, engage the students in word play and read daily from materials that step up the game on their vocabulary with words that are above their level. Past posts have mentioned word games we love to engage our students in active learning, such as:
- Apples to Apples
- Tribond for Kids
- Taboo
- Outburst
- Scattegories
- Last Word
Tell jokes and puns in class. Show them that you love learning new words, playing with the meaning of words, and figuring out why a joke is funny. Let them see you use strategies to figure out new words, so they can learn by example and develop their own strategies.
Multiple Meaning Words
"What did one math book say to the science book? Boy, do I have problems!"
There are few things funnier than listening to young children attempt to tell jokes. They just think they are hysterical, and we go along with it--laughing at non-humor. I had the distinct pleasure of spending time over Memorial Day weekend with almost-five year old nephews who are just three months apart. We sat around telling jokes for about 30 minutes. The older boy laughed at some of the more obvious jokes, the younger one forced himself to laugh, missing the humorous elements in all the jokes. Both boys told their own made-up jokes to varying degrees of "success" in terms of making sense. My favorite: "Why did the mom walk aaaall the way to the airport? (why?) She had a lightbulb in her stomach!" (burst of hysterical laughter from him, encouraging laughter from the adults.)
So what happens with these types of jokes? This nephew had learned the "format" for this basic form of joke, but lacked language precision, which is still developing at this age. He realized he had to tell a story, and that it needed a punchline, but he has not yet developed his awareness of multiple meaning words, which plays a large role in many puns and jokes.
By 6 or 7, children typically realize there is a whole new world of figurative language, including multiple-meaning words. Throughout the elementary years, students are fine-tuning their understanding that words can have nuances of meaning. For example the word "prudent" (which is in our InferCabulary2 app) can apply to a variety of "wise choice-making" such as wearing sunscreen, eating healthfully, studying etc. As they enter elementary school, student's language skills begin to explode, yet again. Amelia Bedelia becomes funny, not because she does silly things, but because of her lack of awareness that words can mean more than one thing.
It is important to spend time helping children learn that words can mean more than one thing. Not only is this language skill important for comprehension, but it sure makes jokes funnier!
This chart of several multiple meaning words by age was borrowed with permission from: http://www.home-speech-home.com/multiple-meaning-words.html
|
Grades
K-2 |
Grades
3-5 |
Grades
6-8 |
Grades
9-12 |
|
bark
bit bat bolt bowl foot gum file fly hard hit last left jam hide check box club can clip stamp shake sink star seal |
before
bill bore blue bear range pool racket pound pupil light leaves mold mine log head jerk handle kid kind stable steer squash stoop stern |
dusting
dread either date crane company charge cobbler column chair tackle strike terrific trace suit like lash late loom marker mint monitor minor patient novel |
current
custom doctor cobble draft buckle coach channel cabinet certain refrain prune riot plane reservation harbor hamper grave hatch ground sentence spare season solution sanction |
Vocabulary Storage
When a student learns the meaning of a new word, the word must then be stored somewhere in the brain for future use and application. When the word is encountered again, either in spoken or written form, the student pulls up whatever concept he/she has for the word, and applies it to the new context.
For example, if the student learns that the word condominium means a place where people live, the word becomes neurologically linked with other words, such as house, apartment, mansion, bungalow etc. However, condominium means more than just a shelter. There are features about a condominium that make it slightly different from an apartment, and very different from a mansion or a shack.
When vocabulary instruction emphasizes how new words relate to the broader picture, and how the new word is different from other words that are related, the neurological storage of that new word is much more effective, making the word available to aid listening and reading comprehension as well as for retrieval during conversation or writing.
Graphic organizers are a great method for guiding students to discover the relationships among and between words that they already have, and how new words should be effectively stored. Walking a student through this process can be very helpful since it helps them, in a visual way, lay down, or enhance the "neural network" or filing system for storing words. For example:
 |
| Shelters (Inspiration File) |
Getting to the Root of Word Meanings
"If you speak English, you know a little more than 100 languages." (Garg, 2011)
Learning prefixes, suffixes and root word meanings is an important aspect of vocabulary instruction. Once my least favorite method for vocabulary, but now it is one of my favorite. Many times while working on understanding the meaning of parts of words, it is very rewarding to see the "lightbulb" moment where they begin to understand words on a whole new level.
There are so many ways the parts of words can be taught that it can be mind-boggling! I like to break it down into two sections - Greek and Latin. Did you know that 50% of words have a Latin origin and 50% have a Greek origin? So, this is a great place to start.
Direct Instruction with Lists
You can find list of root words, prefixes and suffixes all over the internet. It seems daunting sometimes when you see a long, involved list. However, start with the most common words adding and deleting a variety of prefixes and suffixes to show students how to combine the information to create different meanings. Scholastic has a list of common prefixes and suffixes here.
Prefixes and Suffixes
White, Sowell and Yanagihara (1989) found that approximately 20 prefixes were used in 97% of all English words. Begin by taking the 10 most common prefixes, teach them and then work from there. The same research team also determined the frequency of suffixes. One way is inflectional endings: nouns (-s, -es),verbs (-ed, -ing, -en), and adjectives (-er, -est). Other suffixes are -ful, -less, -tion and -ly. Rebecca Miller, Ph.D. recommends using a Prefix Suffix Flipbook. You'll find instructions to make your own here. She suggested flip books with the example of the prefix uni- with unicycle, uniform, and unicorn like the one below:
Games